Baruch Spinoza

The most radical philosopher of the 17th century. Excommunicated from Amsterdam's Jewish community at 23 for unnamed 'abominable heresies', Spinoza developed a pantheistic system equating God with Nature, defended biblical criticism as a human enterprise, and argued for complete freedom of thought. He earned his living grinding lenses and refused prestigious academic appointments to maintain his independence. His Ethics, published posthumously, is among the most geometrically rigorous works in the history of philosophy.

• Roles: Philosopher