Greece

Modern Greece emerged from the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) against the Ottoman Empire, formally recognised as an independent kingdom in 1832 under Bavarian King Otto, later replaced by the Danish Glücksburg dynasty (King George I, 1863). Greece expanded through the 19th and 20th centuries: Thessaly (1881), Macedonia, Epirus, and Crete (1913, after the Balkan Wars), and the Dodecanese (1947). Occupied by Axis powers 1941–1944, Greece then suffered a brutal civil war (1946–1949) in which the Western-backed government defeated communist insurgents. A military junta ruled 1967–1974; the republic was restored in 1974 (Third Hellenic Republic). Greece joined the EU in 1981 and the eurozone in 2001. The 2010 sovereign debt crisis required multiple EU/IMF bailouts and imposed severe austerity, generating the Syriza experiment under Alexis Tsipras.

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