Cicero's Philippics Against Antony — Final Battle for the Republic
Caesar's assassination on the Ides of March 44 BCE briefly revived Cicero's hope for a restored Republic. In September 44 BCE, he unleashed the First Philippic — a measured but devastating critique of Antony's conduct. Antony's furious counter-speech prompted the Second Philippic, never delivered in person but circulated as a pamphlet: the most brilliant and venomous political invective in Latin literature. Over the following months, twelve more Philippics followed as Cicero worked frantically to build a coalition to crush Antony. When the Republican forces won at Mutina in April 43, it seemed for a moment that Cicero had succeeded. The illusion lasted weeks. Octavian negotiated directly with Antony and Lepidus. The Second Triumvirate was proclaimed by law in November 43. The proscription lists followed. Antony insisted on Cicero. Octavian — the boy Cicero had called 'to be praised, flattered, and disposed of' — surrendered him. Cicero was caught near his villa at Formiae on December 7, 43 BCE. When he heard his pursuers, he ordered his litter set down and extended his neck. He was sixty-three years old. His severed head and hands — the hands that had written the Philippics — were brought to Rome and nailed to the Rostra in the Forum.
- Year: 44 BCE
- Category: Political
