French Invasion of Russia
On 24 June 1812, Napoleon's Grande Armée — some 680,000 men drawn from France, Poland, Italy, Germany, and reluctant allies including Austria and Prussia — crossed the Niemen River into Russia, the largest army ever assembled in European history to that point. Napoleon intended a rapid campaign to force Tsar Alexander I back into the Continental System; he sought a decisive battle within weeks that would compel Russian submission before the autumn. The Russian commanders Barclay de Tolly and then Kutuzov denied him that battle, retreating and burning supplies ahead of the French advance. The army shrank as it marched: disease, heat, starvation, and Cossack harassment consumed tens of thousands before a major engagement was fought. Napoleon fought a costly battle at Borodino on 7 September, entering Moscow on 14 September, but Alexander refused to negotiate and Moscow burned. After five weeks waiting in a smouldering city with no peace offer, Napoleon began his retreat on 19 October. Winter arrived early and with exceptional severity; by December temperatures reached −30°C. French columns were harassed relentlessly by Cossacks and partisan fighters; the crossing of the Berezina River in late November was a catastrophe. Of the 680,000 who crossed into Russia, fewer than 100,000 returned in fighting condition. The myth of French invincibility was shattered, and every European power reconsidered its relationship with Napoleon.
- Year: 1812 CE
- Category: Military
